Concept of DWDM Technology:The emergence of DWDM is one of the most recent and important phenomena in the development of fiber optic transmission technology. We briefly trace the stages of fiber optic technology and the place of DWDM in that development. We then examine the functions and components of a DWDM system, including the enabling technologies, and conclude with a high-level description of the operation of a DWDM system.
DWDM-Dense Wavelength Multiplexing" technology is the revolution in the telecom network,DWDM provide better utilization of optical fiber. It provide space and power saving at intermediate station. DWDM also provide the easier capacity expansion & cost effective transmission.
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| Working on DWDM Technology |
Evolution of Fiber Optic Transmission
The reality of fiber optic transmission had been experimentally proven in the nineteenth century, but the technology began to advance rapidly in the second half of the twentieth century with the invention of the fiber scope, which found applications in industry and medicine, such as in laparoscopic surgery.
After the viability of transmitting light over fiber had been established, the next step in the development of fiber optics was to find a light source that would be sufficiently powerful and narrow. The light-emitting diode (LED) and the laser diode proved capable of meeting these requirements. Lasers went through several generations in the 1960s, culminating with the semiconductor lasers that are most widely used in fiber optics today.
Light has an information-carrying capacity 10,000 times greater than the highest radio frequencies. Additional advantages of fiber over copper include the ability to carry signals over long distances, low error rates, immunity to electrical interference, security, and light weight.
Aware of these characteristics, researchers in the mid-1960s proposed that optical fiber might be a suitable transmission medium. There was an obstacle, however, and that was the loss of signal strength, or attenuation. Finally, in 1970, Corning produced the first communication-grade fibers. With attenuation less than 20 decibels per kilometer (dB/km), this purified glass fiber exceeded the threshold for making fiber optics a viable technology.
Innovation at first proceeded slowly, as private and government monopolies that ran the telephone companies were cautious. AT&T first standardized transmission at DS3 speed (45 Mbps) for multimode fibers. Soon thereafter, single-mode fibers were shown to be capable of transmission rates 10 times that of the older type, as well as spans of 32 km (20 mi). In the early 1980s, MCI, followed by Sprint, adopted single-mode fibers for its long-distance network in the U.S.
Further developments in fiber optics are closely tied to the use of the specific regions on the optical spectrum where optical attenuation is low. These regions, called windows, lie between areas of high absorption. The earliest systems were developed to operate around 850 nm, the first window in silica-based optical fiber. A second window (S band), at 1310 nm, soon proved to be superior because of its lower attenuation, followed by a third window (C band) at 1550 nm with an even lower optical loss. Today, a fourth window (L band) near 1625 nm is under development and early deployment.
Development of DWDM Technology
The progression of the technology can be seen as an increase in the number of wavelengths accompanied by a decrease in the spacing of the wavelengths. Along with increased density of wavelengths, systems also advanced in their flexibility of configuration, through add-drop functions, and management capabilities.
Wavelength is expressed (usually in nano meters) as an absolute point on the electromagnetic spectrum. The effective light at a given wavelength is confined narrowly around its central wavelength.
DWDM Functional Schematic
➥Separating the received signals—At the receiving end, the multiplexed signals must be separated out. Although this task would appear to be simply the opposite of combining the signals, it is actually more technically difficult.
➥Receiving the signals—The demultiplexed signal is received by a photodetector.
In addition to these functions, a DWDM system must also be equipped with client-side interfaces to receive the input signal. This function is performed by transponders. On the DWDM side are interfaces to the optical fiber that links DWDM systems.
Enabling Technologies
Optical networking, unlike SONET/SDH, does not rely on electrical data processing. As such, its development is more closely tied to optics than to electronics. In its early form, as described previously, WDM was capable of carrying signals over two widely spaced wavelengths, and for a relatively short distance. To move beyond this initial state, WDM needed both improvements in existing technologies and invention of new technologies. Improvements in optical filters and narrowband lasers enabled DWDM to combine more than two signal wavelengths on a fiber.
The invention of the flat-gain optical amplifier, coupled in line with the transmitting fiber to boost the optical signal, dramatically increased the viability of DWDM systems by greatly extending the transmission distance.
Other technologies that have been important in the development of DWDM include improved optical fiber with lower loss and better optical transmission characteristics, EDFAs, and devices such as fiber Bragg gratings used in optical add/drop multiplexers.
DWDM is a core technology in an optical transport network. The essential components of DWDM can be classified by their place in the system as follows:
➥On the transmit side, lasers with precise, stable wavelengths.
➥On the link, optical fiber that exhibits low loss and transmission performance in the relevant wavelength spectra, in addition to flat-gain optical amplifiers to boost the signal on longer spans.
➥On the receive side, photodetectors and optical demultiplexers using thin film filters or diffractive elements.
➥Optical add/drop multiplexers and optical cross-connect components.
Optical Fibers
How Fiber Works
➥The incident angle is less than the critical angle. The critical angle is the angle of incidence at which light stops being refracted and is instead totally reflected.
The principle of total internal reflection within a fiber core is shown in figure The core has a higher refractive index than the cladding, allowing the beam that strikes that surface at less than the critical angle to be reflected. The second beam does not meet the critical angle requirement and is refracted.
Principle of Total Internal Reflection
An optical fiber consists of two different types of highly pure, solid glass (silica)—the core and the cladding—that are mixed with specific elements, called do-pants, to adjust their refractive indices.
Multimode and Single-Mode Fiber
Single-Mode Fiber Design
Light Detectors
Techniques for Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
A simple form of multiplexing or demultiplexing of light can be done using a prism. In figure demonstrates the demultiplexing case. A parallel beam of polychromatic light impinges on a prism surface; each component wavelength is refracted differently.
This is the "rainbow" effect. In the output light, each wavelength is separated from the next by an angle. A lens then focuses each wavelength to the point where it needs to enter a fiber. The same components can be used in reverse to multiplex different wavelengths onto one fiber.
The waveguides are connected to cavities at the input and output. When the light enters the input cavity, it is diffracted and enters the waveguide array. There the optical length difference of each waveguide introduces phase delays in the output cavity, where an array of fibers is coupled. The process results in different wavelengths having maximal interference at different locations, which correspond to the output ports.
The reality of fiber optic transmission had been experimentally proven in the nineteenth century, but the technology began to advance rapidly in the second half of the twentieth century with the invention of the fiber scope, which found applications in industry and medicine, such as in laparoscopic surgery.
After the viability of transmitting light over fiber had been established, the next step in the development of fiber optics was to find a light source that would be sufficiently powerful and narrow. The light-emitting diode (LED) and the laser diode proved capable of meeting these requirements. Lasers went through several generations in the 1960s, culminating with the semiconductor lasers that are most widely used in fiber optics today.
Light has an information-carrying capacity 10,000 times greater than the highest radio frequencies. Additional advantages of fiber over copper include the ability to carry signals over long distances, low error rates, immunity to electrical interference, security, and light weight.
Aware of these characteristics, researchers in the mid-1960s proposed that optical fiber might be a suitable transmission medium. There was an obstacle, however, and that was the loss of signal strength, or attenuation. Finally, in 1970, Corning produced the first communication-grade fibers. With attenuation less than 20 decibels per kilometer (dB/km), this purified glass fiber exceeded the threshold for making fiber optics a viable technology.
Further developments in fiber optics are closely tied to the use of the specific regions on the optical spectrum where optical attenuation is low. These regions, called windows, lie between areas of high absorption. The earliest systems were developed to operate around 850 nm, the first window in silica-based optical fiber. A second window (S band), at 1310 nm, soon proved to be superior because of its lower attenuation, followed by a third window (C band) at 1550 nm with an even lower optical loss. Today, a fourth window (L band) near 1625 nm is under development and early deployment.
Early WDM began in the late 1980s using the two widely spaced wavelengths in the 1310 nm and 1550 nm (or 850 nm and 1310 nm) regions, sometimes called wideband WDM. Shows an example of this simple form of WDM. Notice that one of the fiber pair is used to transmit and one is used to receive. This is the most efficient arrangement and the one most found in DWDM systems.
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| Multiplexing and Demultiplexing in WDM |
The early 1990s saw a second generation of WDM, sometimes called narrowband WDM, in which two to eight channels were used. These channels were now spaced at an interval of about 400 GHz in the 1550-nm window. By the mid-1990s, dense WDM (DWDM) systems were emerging with 16 to 40 channels and spacing from 100 to 200 GHz. By the late 1990s DWDM systems had evolved to the point where they were capable of 64 to 160 parallel channels, densely packed at 50 or even 25 GHz intervals.
The progression of the technology can be seen as an increase in the number of wavelengths accompanied by a decrease in the spacing of the wavelengths. Along with increased density of wavelengths, systems also advanced in their flexibility of configuration, through add-drop functions, and management capabilities.
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| Drop function in DWDM |
Increases in channel density resulting from DWDM technology have had a dramatic impact on the carrying capacity of fiber. In 1995, when the first 10 Gbps systems were demonstrated, the rate of increase in capacity went from a linear multiple of four every four years to four every year.
DWDM System Functions
At its core, DWDM involves a small number of physical-layer functions.These are depicted in figure which shows a DWDM schematic for four channels. Each optical channel occupies its own wavelength. |
| WDM technology |
Wavelength is expressed (usually in nano meters) as an absolute point on the electromagnetic spectrum. The effective light at a given wavelength is confined narrowly around its central wavelength.
The system performs the following main functions:
➥Generating the signal—The source, a solid-state laser, must provide stable light within a specific, narrow bandwidth that carries the digital data, modulated as an analog signal.
➥Combining the signals—Modern DWDM systems employ multiplexers to combine the signals. There is some inherent loss associated with multiplexing and demultiplexing. This loss is dependent upon the number of channels but can be mitigated with optical amplifiers, which boost all the wavelengths at once without electrical conversion.
➥Transmitting the signals—The effects of crosstalk and optical signal degradation or loss must be reckoned with in fiber optic transmission. These effects can be minimized by controlling variables such as channel spacings, wavelength tolerance, and laser power levels. Over a transmission link, the signal may need to be optically amplified.➥Generating the signal—The source, a solid-state laser, must provide stable light within a specific, narrow bandwidth that carries the digital data, modulated as an analog signal.
➥Combining the signals—Modern DWDM systems employ multiplexers to combine the signals. There is some inherent loss associated with multiplexing and demultiplexing. This loss is dependent upon the number of channels but can be mitigated with optical amplifiers, which boost all the wavelengths at once without electrical conversion.
➥Separating the received signals—At the receiving end, the multiplexed signals must be separated out. Although this task would appear to be simply the opposite of combining the signals, it is actually more technically difficult.
➥Receiving the signals—The demultiplexed signal is received by a photodetector.
In addition to these functions, a DWDM system must also be equipped with client-side interfaces to receive the input signal. This function is performed by transponders. On the DWDM side are interfaces to the optical fiber that links DWDM systems.
The invention of the flat-gain optical amplifier, coupled in line with the transmitting fiber to boost the optical signal, dramatically increased the viability of DWDM systems by greatly extending the transmission distance.
Other technologies that have been important in the development of DWDM include improved optical fiber with lower loss and better optical transmission characteristics, EDFAs, and devices such as fiber Bragg gratings used in optical add/drop multiplexers.
Components and Operation
➥On the transmit side, lasers with precise, stable wavelengths.
➥On the link, optical fiber that exhibits low loss and transmission performance in the relevant wavelength spectra, in addition to flat-gain optical amplifiers to boost the signal on longer spans.
➥On the receive side, photodetectors and optical demultiplexers using thin film filters or diffractive elements.
➥Optical add/drop multiplexers and optical cross-connect components.
The main job of optical fibers is to guide lightwaves with a minimum of attenuation (loss of signal). Optical fibers are composed of fine threads of glass in layers, called the core and cladding, that can transmit light at about two-thirds the speed of light in a vacuum. Though admittedly an oversimplification, the transmission of light in optical fiber is commonly explained using the principle of total internal reflection. With this phenomenon, 100 percent of light that strikes a surface is reflected. By contrast, a mirror reflects about 90 percent of the light that strikes it.
Light is either reflected (it bounces back) or refracted (its angle is altered while passing through a different medium) depending upon the angle of incidence (the angle at which light strikes the interface between an optically denser and optically thinner material).
Total internal reflection happens when the following conditions are met:
➥Beams pass from a more dense to a less dense material. The difference between the optical density of a given material and a vacuum is the material's refractive index.Light is either reflected (it bounces back) or refracted (its angle is altered while passing through a different medium) depending upon the angle of incidence (the angle at which light strikes the interface between an optically denser and optically thinner material).
Total internal reflection happens when the following conditions are met:
➥The incident angle is less than the critical angle. The critical angle is the angle of incidence at which light stops being refracted and is instead totally reflected.
The principle of total internal reflection within a fiber core is shown in figure The core has a higher refractive index than the cladding, allowing the beam that strikes that surface at less than the critical angle to be reflected. The second beam does not meet the critical angle requirement and is refracted.
Principle of Total Internal Reflection
An optical fiber consists of two different types of highly pure, solid glass (silica)—the core and the cladding—that are mixed with specific elements, called do-pants, to adjust their refractive indices.
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| Total Internal Reflection |
The difference between the refractive indices of the two materials causes most of the transmitted light to bounce off the cladding and stay within the core. The critical angle requirement is met by controlling the angle at which the light is injected into the fiber. Two or more layers of protective coating around the cladding ensure that the glass can be handled without damage.
There are two general categories of optical fiber in use today, multimode fiber and single-mode fiber. Multimode, the first type of fiber to be commercialized, has a larger core than single-mode fiber. It gets its name from the fact that numerous modes, or light rays, can be carried simultaneously through the waveguide. Shows an example of light transmitted in the first type of multimode fiber, called step-index.
Step-index refers to the fact that there is a uniform index of refraction throughout the core; thus there is a step in the refractive index where the core and cladding interface. Notice that the two modes must travel different distances to arrive at their destinations. This disparity between the times that the light rays arrive is called modal dispersion. This phenomenon results in poor signal quality at the receiving end and ultimately limits the transmission distance. This is why multimode fiber is not used in wide-area applications.
Step-index refers to the fact that there is a uniform index of refraction throughout the core; thus there is a step in the refractive index where the core and cladding interface. Notice that the two modes must travel different distances to arrive at their destinations. This disparity between the times that the light rays arrive is called modal dispersion. This phenomenon results in poor signal quality at the receiving end and ultimately limits the transmission distance. This is why multimode fiber is not used in wide-area applications.
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| Multimode Optical fiber |
To compensate for the dispersion drawback of step-index multimode fiber, graded-index fiber was invented. Graded-index refers to the fact that the refractive index of the core is graded—it gradually decreases from the center of the core outward. The higher refraction at the center of the core slows the speed of some light rays, allowing all the rays to reach their destination at about the same time and reducing modal dispersion.
The second general type of fiber, single-mode, has a much smaller core that allows only one mode of light at a time through the core . As a result, the fidelity of the signal is better retained over longer distances, and modal dispersion is greatly reduced. These factors attribute to a higher bandwidth capacity than multimode fibers are capable of. For its large information-carrying capacity and low intrinsic loss, single-mode fibers are preferred for longer distance and higher bandwidth applications, including DWDM.
The second general type of fiber, single-mode, has a much smaller core that allows only one mode of light at a time through the core . As a result, the fidelity of the signal is better retained over longer distances, and modal dispersion is greatly reduced. These factors attribute to a higher bandwidth capacity than multimode fibers are capable of. For its large information-carrying capacity and low intrinsic loss, single-mode fibers are preferred for longer distance and higher bandwidth applications, including DWDM.
Designs of single-mode fiber have evolved over several decades. The three principle types and their ITU-T specifications are:
➥Non-dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF), G.652
➥Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF), G.653
➥Non-zero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZ-DSF), G.655.
Near 850 nm, used almost exclusively for short-range, multimode applications. Non-dispersion-shifted fibers, commonly called standard single-mode (SM) fibers, were designed for use in the second window, near 1310 nm. To optimize the fiber's performance in window, the fiber was designed so that chromatic dispersion would be close to zero near the 1310-nm wavelength.
As optical fiber use became more common and the needs for greater bandwidth and distance increased, a third window, near 1550 nm, was exploited for single-mode transmission. The third window, or C band, offered two advantages: it had much lower attenuation, and its operating frequency was the same as that of the new erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs).
However, its dispersion characteristics were severely limiting. This was overcome to a certain extent by using narrower linewidth and higher power lasers. But because the third window had lower attenuation than the 1310-nm window, manufacturers came up with the dispersion-shifted fiber design, which moved the zero-dispersion point to the 1550-nm region.
Although this solution now meant that the lowest optical attenuation and the zero-dispersion points coincided in the 1550-nm window, it turned out that there are destructive nonlinearities in optical fiber near the zero-dispersion point for which there is no effective compensation. Because of this limitation, these fibers are not suitable for DWDM applications.
The third type, non-zero dispersion-shifted fiber, is designed specifically to meet the needs of DWDM applications. The aim of this design is to make the dispersion low in the 1550-nm region, but not zero. This strategy effectively introduces a controlled amount of dispersion, which counters nonlinear effects such as four-wave mixing that can hinder the performance of DWDM systems.
Light Sources and Detectors
➥Non-dispersion-shifted fiber (NDSF), G.652
➥Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF), G.653
➥Non-zero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZ-DSF), G.655.
Near 850 nm, used almost exclusively for short-range, multimode applications. Non-dispersion-shifted fibers, commonly called standard single-mode (SM) fibers, were designed for use in the second window, near 1310 nm. To optimize the fiber's performance in window, the fiber was designed so that chromatic dispersion would be close to zero near the 1310-nm wavelength.
As optical fiber use became more common and the needs for greater bandwidth and distance increased, a third window, near 1550 nm, was exploited for single-mode transmission. The third window, or C band, offered two advantages: it had much lower attenuation, and its operating frequency was the same as that of the new erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs).
However, its dispersion characteristics were severely limiting. This was overcome to a certain extent by using narrower linewidth and higher power lasers. But because the third window had lower attenuation than the 1310-nm window, manufacturers came up with the dispersion-shifted fiber design, which moved the zero-dispersion point to the 1550-nm region.
Although this solution now meant that the lowest optical attenuation and the zero-dispersion points coincided in the 1550-nm window, it turned out that there are destructive nonlinearities in optical fiber near the zero-dispersion point for which there is no effective compensation. Because of this limitation, these fibers are not suitable for DWDM applications.
The third type, non-zero dispersion-shifted fiber, is designed specifically to meet the needs of DWDM applications. The aim of this design is to make the dispersion low in the 1550-nm region, but not zero. This strategy effectively introduces a controlled amount of dispersion, which counters nonlinear effects such as four-wave mixing that can hinder the performance of DWDM systems.
Light emitters and light detectors are active devices at opposite ends of an optical transmission system. Light sources, or light emitters, are transmit-side devices that convert electrical signals to light pulses.
The process of this conversion, or modulation, can be accomplished by externally modulating a continuous wave of light or by using a device that can generate modulated light directly. Light detectors perform the opposite function of light emitters. They are receive-side opto-electronic devices that convert light pulses into electrical signals.
Light Emitters—LEDs and Lasers
Light Emitters—LEDs and Lasers
The light source used in the design of a system is an important consideration because it can be one of the most costly elements. Its characteristics are often a strong limiting factor in the final performance of the optical link. Light emitting devices used in optical transmission must be compact, monochromatic, stable, and long-lasting.
Two general types of light emitting devices are used in optical transmission, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes, or semiconductor lasers. LEDs are relatively slow devices, suitable for use at speeds of less than 1 Gbps, they exhibit a relatively wide spectrum width, and they transmit light in a relatively wide cone. These inexpensive devices are often used in multimode fiber communications. Semiconductor lasers, on the other hand, have performance characteristics better suited to single-mode fiber applications.
Two general types of light emitting devices are used in optical transmission, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes, or semiconductor lasers. LEDs are relatively slow devices, suitable for use at speeds of less than 1 Gbps, they exhibit a relatively wide spectrum width, and they transmit light in a relatively wide cone. These inexpensive devices are often used in multimode fiber communications. Semiconductor lasers, on the other hand, have performance characteristics better suited to single-mode fiber applications.
In figure shows the general principles of launching laser light into fiber. The laser diode chip emits light in one direction to be focused by the lens onto the fiber and in the other direction onto a photodiode. The photodiode, which is angled to reduce back reflections into the laser cavity, provides a way of monitoring the output of the lasers and providing feedback so that adjustments can be made.
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| Fiber side view |
Requirements for lasers include precise wavelength, narrow spectrum width, sufficient power, and control of chirp(the
change in frequency of a signal over time). Semiconductor lasers
satisfy nicely the first three requirements. Chirp, however, can be
affected by the means used to modulate the signal.
In directly modulated lasers, the modulation of the light to represent
the digital data is done internally. With external modulation, the
modulation is done by an external device. When semiconductor lasers are
directly modulated, chirp can become a limiting factor at high bit rates
(above 10 Gbps). External modulation, on the other hand, helps to limit
chirp.
Two types of semiconductor lasers are widely used, monolithic
Fabry-Perot lasers, and distributed feedback (DFB) lasers. The latter
type is particularly well suited for DWDM applications, as it emits a
nearly monochromatic light, is capable of high speeds, has a favorable
signal-to-noise ratio, and has superior linearity. DFB lasers also have
center frequencies in the region around 1310 nm, and from
1520 to 1565 nm.
The latter wavelength range is compatible with EDFAs.
There are many other types and subtypes of lasers. Narrow spectrum
tunable lasers are available, but their tuning range is limited to
approximately 100-200 GHz. Under development are wider spectrum tunable
lasers, which will be important in dynamically switched optical
networks.
On the receive end, it is necessary to recover the signals transmitted at different wavelengths on the fiber. Because photodetectors are by nature wideband devices, the optical signals are demultiplexed before reaching the detector.
Two types of photodetectors are widely deployed, the positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) photodiode and the avalanche photodiode (APD). PIN photodiodes work on principles similar to, but in the reverse of, LEDs. That is, light is absorbed rather than emitted, and photons are converted to electrons in a 1:1 relationship. APDs are similar devices to PIN photodiodes,
but provide gain through an amplification process: One photon acting on the device releases many electrons. PIN photodiodes have many advantages, including low cost and reliability, but APDs have higher receive sensitivity and accuracy. However, APDs are more expensive than PIN photodiodes, they can have very high current requirements, and they are temperature sensitive.
Optical Amplifiers
Two types of photodetectors are widely deployed, the positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) photodiode and the avalanche photodiode (APD). PIN photodiodes work on principles similar to, but in the reverse of, LEDs. That is, light is absorbed rather than emitted, and photons are converted to electrons in a 1:1 relationship. APDs are similar devices to PIN photodiodes,
but provide gain through an amplification process: One photon acting on the device releases many electrons. PIN photodiodes have many advantages, including low cost and reliability, but APDs have higher receive sensitivity and accuracy. However, APDs are more expensive than PIN photodiodes, they can have very high current requirements, and they are temperature sensitive.
Optical Amplifiers
Due to attenuation, there are limits to how long a fiber segment can propagate a signal with integrity before it has to be regenerated. Before the arrival of optical amplifiers (OAs), there had to be a repeater for every signal transmitted. The OA has made it possible to amplify all the wavelengths at once and without optical-electrical-optical (OEO) conversion. Besides being used on optical links, optical amplifiers also can be used to boost signal power after multiplexing or before demultiplexing, both of which can introduce loss into the system.
Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier
By making it possible to carry the large loads that DWDM is capable of transmitting over long distances, the EDFA was a key enabling technology. At the same time, it has been a driving force in the development of other network elements and technologies.
Erbium is a rare-earth element that, when excited, emits light around 1.54 micrometers—the low-loss wavelength for optical fibers used in DWDM. Shows a simplified diagram of an EDFA. A weak signal enters the erbium-doped fiber, into which light at 980 nm or 1480 nm is injected using a pump laser.
Erbium is a rare-earth element that, when excited, emits light around 1.54 micrometers—the low-loss wavelength for optical fibers used in DWDM. Shows a simplified diagram of an EDFA. A weak signal enters the erbium-doped fiber, into which light at 980 nm or 1480 nm is injected using a pump laser.
This injected light stimulates the erbium atoms to release their stored energy as additional 1550-nm light. As this process continues down the fiber, the signal grows stronger. The spontaneous emissions in the EDFA also add noise to the signal; this determines the noise figure of an EDFA.
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| EDFA |
The key performance parameters of optical amplifiers are gain, gain flatness, noise level, and output power. EDFAs are typically capable of gains of 30 dB or more and output power of +17 dB or more. The target parameters when selecting an EDFA, however, are low noise and flat gain.
Gain should be flat because all signals must be amplified uniformly. While the signal gain provided with EDFA technology is inherently wavelength-dependent, it can be corrected with gain flattening filters. Such filters are often built into modern EDFAs.
Low noise is a requirement because noise, along with signal, is amplified. Because this effect is cumulative, and cannot be filtered out, the signal-to-noise ratio is an ultimate limiting factor in the number of amplifiers that can be concatenated and, therefore, the length of a single fiber link. In practice, signals can travel for up to 120 km (74 mi) between amplifiers.
Low noise is a requirement because noise, along with signal, is amplified. Because this effect is cumulative, and cannot be filtered out, the signal-to-noise ratio is an ultimate limiting factor in the number of amplifiers that can be concatenated and, therefore, the length of a single fiber link. In practice, signals can travel for up to 120 km (74 mi) between amplifiers.
At longer distances of 600 to 1000 km (372 to 620 mi) the signal must be regenerated. That is because the optical amplifier merely amplifies the signals and does not perform the 3R functions (reshape, retime, retransmit). EDFAs are available for the C-band and the L-band.
Multiplexers and Demultiplexers
Because DWDM systems send signals from several sources over a single fiber, they must include some means to combine the incoming signals. This is done with a multiplexer, which takes optical wavelengths from multiple fibers and converges them into one beam. At the receiving end the system must be able to separate out the components of the light so that they can be discreetly detected.
Demultiplexers perform this function by separating the received beam into its wavelength components and coupling them to individual fibers. Demultiplexing must be done before the light is detected, because photodetectors are inherently broadband devices that cannot selectively detect a single wavelength.
In a unidirectional system (see in figure) there is a multiplexer at the sending end and a demultiplexer at the receiving end. Two system would be required at each end for bidirectional communication, and two separate fibers would be needed.
Demultiplexers perform this function by separating the received beam into its wavelength components and coupling them to individual fibers. Demultiplexing must be done before the light is detected, because photodetectors are inherently broadband devices that cannot selectively detect a single wavelength.
In a unidirectional system (see in figure) there is a multiplexer at the sending end and a demultiplexer at the receiving end. Two system would be required at each end for bidirectional communication, and two separate fibers would be needed.
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| Mux and Demux in DWDM |
In a bidirectional system, there is a multiplexer/demultiplexer at each end (see in figure) and communication is over a single fiber pair.
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| Mux and Demux |
Multiplexers and demultiplexers can be either passive or active in design. Passive designs are based on prisms, diffraction gratings, or filters, while active designs combine passive devices with tunable filters. The primary challenges in these devices is to minimize cross-talk and maximize channel separation. Cross-talk is a measure of how well the channels are separated, while channel separation refers to the ability to distinguish each wavelength.
Techniques for Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
A simple form of multiplexing or demultiplexing of light can be done using a prism. In figure demonstrates the demultiplexing case. A parallel beam of polychromatic light impinges on a prism surface; each component wavelength is refracted differently.
This is the "rainbow" effect. In the output light, each wavelength is separated from the next by an angle. A lens then focuses each wavelength to the point where it needs to enter a fiber. The same components can be used in reverse to multiplex different wavelengths onto one fiber.
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| Wavelength in DWDM |
Another technology is based on the principles of diffraction and of optical interference. When a polychromatic light source impinges on a diffraction grating (See in figure), each wavelength is diffracted at a different angle and therefore to a different point in space. Using a lens, these wavelengths can be focused onto individual fibers.
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| Wavelength technology in DWDM |
Arrayed waveguide gratings (AWGs) are also based on diffraction principles. An AWG device, sometimes called an optical waveguide router or waveguide grating router, consists of an array of curved-channel waveguides with a fixed difference in the path length between adjacent channels (see in figure).
The waveguides are connected to cavities at the input and output. When the light enters the input cavity, it is diffracted and enters the waveguide array. There the optical length difference of each waveguide introduces phase delays in the output cavity, where an array of fibers is coupled. The process results in different wavelengths having maximal interference at different locations, which correspond to the output ports.
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| Arrayed waveguide in DWDM technology |
A different technology uses interference filters in devices called thin film filters or multilayer interference filters. By positioning filters, consisting of thin films, in the optical path, wavelengths can be sorted out (demultiplexed). The property of each filter is such that it transmits one wavelength while reflecting others. By cascading these devices, many wavelengths can be demultiplexed (see in figure).
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| Demultiplexing in DWDM |
Of these designs, the AWG and thin film interference filters are gaining prominence. Filters offer good stability and isolation between channels at moderate cost, but with a high insertion loss. AWGs are polarization-dependent (which can be compensated), and they exhibit a flat spectral response and low insertion loss.
A potential drawback is that they are temperature sensitive such that they may not be practical in all environments. Their big advantage is that they can be designed to perform multiplexing and demultiplexing operations simultaneously. AWGs are also better for large channel counts, where the use of cascaded thin film filters is impractical.
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexers
A potential drawback is that they are temperature sensitive such that they may not be practical in all environments. Their big advantage is that they can be designed to perform multiplexing and demultiplexing operations simultaneously. AWGs are also better for large channel counts, where the use of cascaded thin film filters is impractical.
Between multiplexing and demultiplexing points in a DWDM system, there is an area in which multiple wavelengths exist. It is often desirable to be able to remove or insert one or more wavelengths at some point along this span. An optical add/drop multiplexer (OADM) performs this function. Rather than combining or separating all wavelengths, the OADM can remove some while passing others on. OADMs are a key part of moving toward the goal of all-optical networks.
OADMs are similar in many respects to SONET ADM, except that only optical wavelengths are added and dropped, and no conversion of the signal from optical to electrical takes place. It is a schematic representation of the add-drop process. This example includes both pre- and post-amplification; these components that may or may not be present in an OADM, depending upon its design.
OADMs are similar in many respects to SONET ADM, except that only optical wavelengths are added and dropped, and no conversion of the signal from optical to electrical takes place. It is a schematic representation of the add-drop process. This example includes both pre- and post-amplification; these components that may or may not be present in an OADM, depending upon its design.
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| WSS in DWDM Technology |
There are two general types of OADMs. The first generation is a fixed device that is physically configured to drop specific predetermined wavelengths while adding others. The second generation is reconfigurable and capable of dynamically selecting which wavelengths are added and dropped.
Thin-film filters have emerged as the technology of choice for OADMs in current metropolitan DWDM systems because of their low cost and stability. For the emerging second generation of OADMs, other technologies, such as tunable fiber gratings and circulators, will come into prominence.
Interfaces to DWDM
Thin-film filters have emerged as the technology of choice for OADMs in current metropolitan DWDM systems because of their low cost and stability. For the emerging second generation of OADMs, other technologies, such as tunable fiber gratings and circulators, will come into prominence.
Most DWDM systems support standard SONET/SDH short-reach optical interfaces to which any SONET/SDH compliant client device can attach. In today's long-haul WDM systems, this is most often an OC-48c/STM-16c interface operating at the 1310-nm wavelength. In addition, other interfaces important in metropolitan area and access networks are commonly supported: Ethernet (including Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet), ESCON, Sysplex Timer and Sysplex Coupling Facility Links, and Fibre Channel. The new 10 Gigabit Ethernet standard is supported using a very short reach (VSR) OC-192 interface over MM fiber between 10 Gigabit Ethernet and DWDM equipment.
On the client side there can be SONET/SDH terminals or ADMs, ATM switches, or routers. By converting incoming optical signals into the precise ITU-standard wavelengths to be multiplexed, transponders are currently a key determinant of the openness of DWDM systems.
Within the DWDM system a transponder converts the client optical signal from back to an electrical signal and performs the 3R functions. This electrical signal is then used to drive the WDM laser. Each transponder within the system converts its client's signal to a slightly different wavelength. The wavelengths from all of the transponders in the system are then optically multiplexed.
In the receive direction of the DWDM system, the reverse process takes place. Individual wavelengths are filtered from the multiplexed fiber and fed to individual transponders, which convert the signal to electrical and drive a standard interface to the client.
Operation of a Transponder Based DWDM System
On the client side there can be SONET/SDH terminals or ADMs, ATM switches, or routers. By converting incoming optical signals into the precise ITU-standard wavelengths to be multiplexed, transponders are currently a key determinant of the openness of DWDM systems.
Within the DWDM system a transponder converts the client optical signal from back to an electrical signal and performs the 3R functions. This electrical signal is then used to drive the WDM laser. Each transponder within the system converts its client's signal to a slightly different wavelength. The wavelengths from all of the transponders in the system are then optically multiplexed.
In the receive direction of the DWDM system, the reverse process takes place. Individual wavelengths are filtered from the multiplexed fiber and fed to individual transponders, which convert the signal to electrical and drive a standard interface to the client.
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| DWDM Technology |
The following steps describe the system shown in figure:
1.The transponder accepts input in the form of standard single-mode or multimode laser. The input can come from different physical media and different protocols and traffic types.
2.The wavelength of each input signal is mapped to a DWDM wavelength.
3.DWDM wavelengths from the transponder are multiplexed into a single optical signal and launched into the fiber. The system might also include the ability to accept direct optical signals to the multiplexer; such signals could come, for example, from a satellite node.
4.A post-amplifier boosts the strength of the optical signal as it leaves the system (optional).
5.Optical amplifiers are used along the fiber span as needed (optional).
6.A pre-amplifier boosts the signal before it enters the end system (optional).
7.The incoming signal is demultiplexed into individual DWDM lambdas (or wavelengths).
8.The individual DWDM lambdas are mapped to the required output type (for example, OC-48 single-mode fiber) and sent out through the transponder.
2.The wavelength of each input signal is mapped to a DWDM wavelength.
3.DWDM wavelengths from the transponder are multiplexed into a single optical signal and launched into the fiber. The system might also include the ability to accept direct optical signals to the multiplexer; such signals could come, for example, from a satellite node.
4.A post-amplifier boosts the strength of the optical signal as it leaves the system (optional).
5.Optical amplifiers are used along the fiber span as needed (optional).
6.A pre-amplifier boosts the signal before it enters the end system (optional).
7.The incoming signal is demultiplexed into individual DWDM lambdas (or wavelengths).
8.The individual DWDM lambdas are mapped to the required output type (for example, OC-48 single-mode fiber) and sent out through the transponder.
Disadvantages of DWDM
➤Multi channel failure due to line failure and required dispersion management.
What is 3R Regeneration
Re-Amplification- 1R : Boost-up the received weak signals to the transmit further. It is done by optical amplifier.
Re-Shaping- 2R : Correcting noise and dispersion. Remove noise from a digital signal.Done by DCF and OAO.
Re-Timing- 3R : Synchronizing with network clock. Using PLL and optical clock recovery.
Summary
DWDM provide a higher trasnmission capacity on a signal optical fiber by multiplexing up to 32 channel in c-Band. I have tried to provide the more details about DWDM technology.How is "Concept of DWDM Technology". If you required more details component wise please comment .
2 Comments
Thanks alot for these great info.
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